Luscombe shifts from using pathos to logos, discussing the negative effects of spanking. “Children who are spanked frequently have lower IQs, are more aggressive, and are more likely to abuse drugs and alcohol.” Describing the characteristics of children who are spanked helps to reason with parents reading. Parents want their children to succeed in life and most will do everything they can to make this happen. So, if statistics show that spanking children as a form of discipline can cause lower IQ, this will further convince them not to spank, making his argument thus far successful. Luscombe then explains how children who are spanked "had higher spikes in cortisol, the stress hormone, when faced with a new experience." Incorporating studies on how not only toddlers and older children are spanked, but young children as well adds more concern from the public, further reasoning with them through these